Causative

Causative
(Contact)

Georgian transitive verb has a special morphological form, which can show whether the subject acts immediately towards the direct object or by means of the third person. The name of this category is a contact.

The same category is expressed by a syntactic construction in English; e. g.:
A man is building a house.
A man makes his friend build a house.

This category has its morphological marker in the verb form in Georgian: the vowel prefix a- and the suffix -in (or -evin); the thematic suffix -eb is characterised for the mediated contact forms of a verb.

Direct contact	Mediated contact (causative)
wer-s (is mas) c'er-s (is mas) he is writing smth.	a-wer-in-eb-s (is mas mas) a-c'er-in-eb-s (is mas mas) he makes him write smth.
xatavs (is mas) xatavs (is mas) is painting	a-xatv-in-eb-s (is mas mas) a-xatv-in-eb-s (is mas mas) he makes him paint smth.
aSenebs (is mas) ashenebs (is mas) is building	a-Seneb-in-eb-s (is mas mas) a-sheneb-in-eb-s (is mas mas) he makes him build smth.

Depending the context forms of causative can express different meanings: neutral (to make), to help, to force, to give an oprtunity; e. g.:

1. Neutral (to make): mkeravs kaba Sevakerine mk'eravs k'aba shevak'erine I made tailor/ dressmaker sew a dress for me.
2. To help: Cems das Cemodani wavaRebine chems das chemodani c'avagebine I made my sister bring the suitcase; I helped my sister to carry suitcase.
3. To force: qurds uTo ukan movataninekurds uto uk'an movatanine I made a thief bring the iron back.
4. To give an oprtunity: megobars Cems saxlSi Rame gavaTenebine megobars chems saxlshi game gavatenebine I made my friend stay overnight in my house" I let my friend stay overnight at my place.

The direct contact
The mediated contact (causative)

More particularly
About the prefix a-
About the distribution of -in and -evin
About the thematic suffix in the mediated contact forms

Mediated form of the Passive voice verbs
Transitivity and the mediated contact

More information
The first and the second persons as the direct objects in the mediated forms of a verb
More about the pronoun Tavi tavi

The direct contact:
The grammatical (morphological/syntactical) subject acts directly towards the direct object (the subject is one who is an actual executor of the action):

Subject (executor)	Direct object	Verb-Predicate (direct contact)
bavSv-i	davaleba-s	wer-s
bavshv-i	davaleba-s	c'er-s
child-Nom.	homework-Dat.	write-3Subj.Sing

A child is writing a homework.

The mediated contact (causative):
The grammatical (morphological/syntactical) subject does not act directly towards the direct object but it is one who is an organiser of an action. Actual executor of the action is represented as a grammatical indirect object.

Subject (organiser)	Indirect object (executor)	Direct object	Verb-Predicate (mediated contact)
deda-ø	bavSv-s	davaleba-s	a-wer-in-eb-s
deda-ø	bavshv-s	davaleba-s	a-c'er-in-eb-s
mother-Nom. .Sing	child-Dat.	homework-Dat	Vowel prefix-c'er- Causative-Them.suffix-3Subj.

The mother makes a child write a homework.

Direct object remains unchanged in both cases.

Subject (executor)	Direct object	Verb-Predicate (direct contact)
kac-i	saxl-s	a-Sen-eb-s
k'ac-i	saxl-s	a-shen-eb-s
man-Nominative	house-Dative	Vowel prefix-build-Them.-3Subj.Sing.

A man is building a house

Subject (organiser)	Indirect object (executor)	Direct object	Verb-Predicate (mediated contact)
kac-i	megobar-s	saxl-s	a-Seneb-in-eb-s
k'ac-i	megobar-s	saxl-s	a-sheneb-in-eb-s
man-Nominative	friend-Dative	house-Dative	Vowel prefix-built-Caus.-Them.-3Subj.Sing.

A man makes his friend build a house.

The examples from the second and the third series:

Aorist (Completed past) (screeve of the second series)
kac-ma	megobar-s	saxl-i	a-a-Seneb-in-a
k'ac-ma	megobar-s	saxl-i	a-a-sheneb-in-a
man-Erg.	friend-Dat.	house-Nom.	Preverb-Vowel prefix-built-Caus.-3Subj.Sing.

A man made his friend built a house.

Aorist (Completed past) (screeve of the third series)
kac-s	megobr-is-Tvis	saxl-i	a-u-Seneb-in-eb-ia
k'ac-s	megobr-is-tvis	saxl-i	a-u'sheneb-in-eb-ia
man-Dat.	friend-Gen-Postposition.	house-Nom.	Preverb-Vowelprefix-built-Caus.-Them.-3Subj.Sing.

It turns out that a man made his friend built a house. More particularly
About the prefix a-
If the vowel prefix a- is already represented in the direct contact verb form, it remains unchanged in the mediated contact form too:

a-cxob-s	a-cxob-s	is baking
a-cxob-in-eb-s	a-cxob-in-eb-s	makes him/her bake

For instance:

Elene is baking a bread
elene-ø	pur-s	a-cxob-s
elene-ø	p'ur-s	a-cxob-s
elene.Nom	bread-Dat.	Vowel prefix (RM)-bake-3 Subject.Singular

Tamar makes Elene bake a bread
Tamar-i	elene-s	pur-s	a-cxob-in-eb-s
tamar-i	elene-s	p'ur-s	a-cxob-in-eb-s
tamar-Nom.	elene-Dat	bred-Dat.	Vowel prefix (RM)-bake-Caus.-Them.-3Subject.Singular

If the direct contact form is formed without a vowel prefix, the prefix a- appears in the form of the mediated contact (wer-s a-wer-in-eb-s c'er-s - a-c'er-in-eb-s is writing - makes him write, xatavs - a-xatv-in-eb-s. xat'avs - a-xat'v-in-eb-s.. is painting, drawing - makes him paint, draw)

About the distribution of the suffixes -in and -evin
The verbs, having the non-syllabic masdars, form the mediated forms by means of the suffix -evin -evin:

Direct form Masdar Mediated form

Tl-i-s tl-i-s (is pealing) Tl-a tl-a to peal a-Tl-evin-eb-s a-tl-evin-eb-s(makes him peal)

Wr-i-s ch'r-i-s (is cutting) Wr-a ch'ra to cut a-Wr-evin-eb-s a-ch'r-evin-eb-s(makes himcut)

xsn-i-s xsn-i-s (is openning) xsn-a xsn-a to open a-xsn-evin-eb-s a-xsn-evin-eb-s(makes him open)

The verbs, having the syllabic masdars, form the mediate forms by means of the suffix -in -in:

Direct form Masdar Mediated form

mal-av-s mal-av-s (is concealing, hiding) mal-v-a mal-v-a to hide, to conceal a-mal-v-in-eb-s a-mal-v-in-eb-s(makes him hide)

About the thematic suffix in the mediated contact forms

If a verb has not any thematic suffix, the suffix of causative -in (/-evin)-in (/-evin) follows the root and is followed by the thematic suffix -eb -eb: wer-s - a-wer-in-eb-s c'er-s - a-c'er-in-eb-s.

If the direct contact form of a verb has any thematic suffix, the suffix of causative follows it. Since the thematic suffix is followed by the suffix of causative, the former thematic suffix is losing the function of a thematic suffix and a new thematic suffix -eb appears after the suffix of causative in the verb form:

Direct form

a Sen eb s

a shen eb s

vowel prefix build them. suffix 3Subj. Sing.

Mediated form

a Sen eb in eb s

a shen eb in eb s

vowel prefix build the former them. suffix caus. them.suffix 3Subj.Sing

Direct form
a	Sen	eb	s
a	shen	eb	s
vowel prefix	build	them. suffix	3Subj. Sing.

Mediated form
a	Sen	eb	in	eb	s
a	shen	eb	in	eb	s
vowel prefix	build	the former them. suffix	caus.	them.suffix	3Subj.Sing

The former thematic suffix preceding a causative (mediated contact) marker -in /-evin undergoes reduction:
-av > -v:

xat-av-s a-xat-v-in-eb-s

xat'-av-s a-xat'-v-in-eb-s

paint-them.-3Subj. Sing. vowel prefix-paint-the formerthem. suffix reduced-causative suffix-thematic suffix-3Subj. Sing.

-am > -m:

dg-am-s a-dg-m-evin-eb-s

dg-am-s a-dg-m-evin-eb-s

put (to stand)-them. -3Subj. Sing. Vpr(RM)- put (tostand)-the former them. suffix reduced-caus. -them. -3Su Sing.

Mediated form of the Passive voice verbs
Grammatical subject is acted upon but it is represented as the reason or as the organisor of the action fulfilled by the grammatical indirect object.
The prefix e- appears in the form of the mediated contact form of the so-called passive voice:

kl-av-s is (Subject) mas (Direct object)
k'l-av-s is (Subject) mas (Direct object)
He is killing him.

e-kvl-evin-eb-a is mas
e-k'vl-evin-eb-a is mas
"He makes him to kill him" (e. g,: nino sicives ekvlevineba Nino sicives ek'vlevineba "Nino makes cold kill her" - = Nino is freezing and it is her own fault) .

is is is a subject, the former direct object (=direct object in the active voice forms);
mas mas him is an indirect object, the former subject (=subject in the active voice forms). e. g.:

The analogous forms can express the involuntary action:
mewerineba mec'erineba It is being written by me without my decision.

Transitivity and the mediated contact
One group of the transitive verbs may be derived from the passive voice verbs or from the so-called middle voice verbs.

Transitive verb is derived from the passive voice form:

Tb-eb-a > a-Tb-ob-s
tb-eb-a > a-tb-ob-s
It is being warmed > He is warming it.

cxv-eb-a > a-cx-ob-s
cxv-eb-a > a-cx-ob-s
It is being baked > He is baking it.

Wkn-eb-a > a-Wkn-ob-s
ch'k'n-eb-a > a-ch'k'n-ob-s
It is being faded > He is fading it.

Transitive verb is derived from the middle voice form:

tir-i-s > a-tir-eb-s
t'ir-i-s > a-t'ir-eb-s
He cries > He makes him cry.

wux-s > a-wux-eb-s
c'ux-s > a-c'ux-eb-s
He is worried > He makes him be worrid

cxovrob-s > a-cxovr-eb-s
cxovrob-s > a-cxovr-eb-s
He lives > He makes him live

duRs > aduRebs
dugs > adugebs
It is boiling > He is boiling it
etc.

It is possible to form forms of causative from these derived transitive forms. One more object, one more participant appears:

Tb-eb-a > a-Tb-ob-s > a-Tbob-in-eb-s
tb-eb-a > a-tb-ob-s > a-tbob-in-eb-s
It is being warmed > He is warming it > He makes him warm it

cxv-eb-a > a-cx-ob-s > a-cxob-in-eb-s
cxv-eb-a > a-cx-ob-s > a-cxob-in-eb-s
It is being baked > He is baking it > He makes him bake it

Wkn-eb-a > a-Wkn-ob-s > a-Wknob-in-eb-s
ch'k'n-eb-a > a-ch'k'n-ob-s > a-ch'k'nob-in-eb-s
It is being faded > He is fading it > He makes him fade it.

These forms were called as ditransitive verbs in the Georgian grammars from the 18th and 19th century but nowadays (since Akaki Shanidze) in the Georgian tarditional grammar the notion of transitivity and causation are distinguished. The terms primary and secondary causation are also used towards these forms.

Back to Contact

More information

The first and the second persons as the direct objects in the mediated forms of a verb
The markers of the first direct object person and the first indirect object person coincides as well as the markers of the second direct object person and the second indirect object person. This is a reason that if verb expresses the mediated contact (causative) and the direct object is either the first or the second person, then the verb form is unable to diferentiate who the first(/second) object person is: whether it is an indirect object, person which is acting (executor) or the direct object (one who is acted upon); e. g.:

The first object person
damaWerineb damach'erineb - this form can have two meanings:

1.
da-m-a-Wer-in-eb
da-m-a-ch'er-in-eb
Preverb-1 Ind. Obj.-hold/arrest-Caus.-Them
You will make me (indirect object) hold (arrest) him/her.

2.
da-m-a-Wer-in-eb
da-m-a-ch'er-in-eb
Preverb-1 Direct Obj.-hold/arrest-Caus.-Them
You will make him/her (indirect object) hold (arrest) me (direrct object).

The second object person

dagaWerineb dagach'erineb - this form can have two meanings:

1.
da-g-a-Wer-in-eb
da-g-a-ch'er-in-eb
Preverb-2 Ind. Obj.-hold/arrest-Caus.-Them
I will make you (indirect object) hold (arrest) him/her.

2.
da-g-a-Wer-in-eb
da-g-a-ch'er-in-eb
Preverb-2 Direct Obj.-hold/arrest-Caus.-Them
I will make him/her (indirect object) hold (arrest) you (direct object).

Such forms are usually used with the first meaning (You will make me (indirect object) hold (arrest) him/her; I will make you (indirect object) hold/arrest him/her). When the first or the second object persons should be the direct objects, the usage of analytic forms is common: the first or the second person direct object is represented as the third person by means of the possessive pronoun of the first (correspondingly - the second) person and the pronoun "Tavi" tavi (the basic meaning "head"):

me Sen-s Tav-s ma-s da-v-a-Wer-in-eb

me shen-s tav-s ma-s da-v-a-ch'er-in-eb.

I your Possess.Pron.-Dat. person (head)-Dat. he-Dat. Preverb-1Subj.-VPr-hold/arrest-Caus.-Them

I will make him/her (indirect object) hold (arrest) you (direct object).

Sen Cems Tavs mas da-ø-a-Wer-in-eb.

shen chems tavs mas da-ø-a-ch'er-in-eb.

You my Possess. Pron.-Dat. person (head)-Dat. he-Dat. Preverb-2Subj.-Vowel Pref.-hold/arrest-Caus.-Them

You will make him/her (indirect object) hold (arrest) me (direrct object).

Back to Contact

More about the pronoun Tavi tavi
Such constructions formed by means of "Tavi" tavi may also appear in the third person (in the forms of the first series). In this case they make it clear which person among two dative-case marked persons is an indirect object (executor) and which is a direct object (acted upon). Pronoun Tavi tavi as always used instead of the direct object. e. g.:

me givis daTos davaWerineb
me givis datos davach'erineb

This sentence can be understood in two ways:

1. I will make Dato arrest Givi.
2. I will make Givi arrest Dato.

(In the second and the third series this ambiguity is leveled by the case marking: the direct object is marked by the nominative case, while the indirect object is in the dative in the second series, and in the genitive with the postposition -Tvis tvis in the third series).

When the rponoun Tavi appears, the sentence can be understood only in the one way:

me givis Tavs daTos davaWerineb.
me givis tavs datos davach'erineb.
I will make Dato arrest Givi.

me givis daTos Tavs davaWerineb.
me givis datos tavs davach'erineb.
I will make Givi arrest Dato.

Such a coincidence and the same way for overcoming the ambiguty is attested in the direct contact forms too; e. g.:

me shen natelas gachveneb
me Sen naTelas gaCveneb.

Such a sentence can mean:

1. *me Sen naTelas Tavs gaCveneb
me shen natelas tavs gachveneb
I will show you Natela.

2. me Sens Tavs naTelas vaCveneb.
me shens tavs natelas vachveneb.
I will show you to Natela

It can also be used in the passive:

moekvlevina - Tavi moakvlevina
moek'vlevina -tavi moak'vlevina.

Direct form	Masdar	Mediated form
Tl-i-s tl-i-s (is pealing)	Tl-a tl-a to peal	a-Tl-evin-eb-s a-tl-evin-eb-s(makes him peal)
Wr-i-s ch'r-i-s (is cutting)	Wr-a ch'ra to cut	a-Wr-evin-eb-s a-ch'r-evin-eb-s(makes himcut)
xsn-i-s xsn-i-s (is openning)	xsn-a xsn-a to open	a-xsn-evin-eb-s a-xsn-evin-eb-s(makes him open)

xat-av-s	a-xat-v-in-eb-s
xat'-av-s	a-xat'-v-in-eb-s
paint-them.-3Subj. Sing.	vowel prefix-paint-the formerthem. suffix reduced-causative suffix-thematic suffix-3Subj. Sing.

dg-am-s	a-dg-m-evin-eb-s
dg-am-s	a-dg-m-evin-eb-s
put (to stand)-them. -3Subj. Sing.	Vpr(RM)- put (tostand)-the former them. suffix reduced-caus. -them. -3Su Sing.

me	Sen-s	Tav-s	ma-s	da-v-a-Wer-in-eb
me	shen-s	tav-s	ma-s	da-v-a-ch'er-in-eb.
I	your Possess.Pron.-Dat.	person (head)-Dat.	he-Dat.	Preverb-1Subj.-VPr-hold/arrest-Caus.-Them

Sen	Cems	Tavs	mas	da-ø-a-Wer-in-eb.
shen	chems	tavs	mas	da-ø-a-ch'er-in-eb.
You	my Possess. Pron.-Dat.	person (head)-Dat.	he-Dat.	Preverb-2Subj.-Vowel Pref.-hold/arrest-Caus.-Them